Treatment Technologies
Ozone Generator Companies
Corona-discharge and electrolytic ozone generator OEMs for disinfection and AOP applications.
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Ozone Generation Technology: Corona Discharge, Concentration, and Water Treatment Dosing Design
Ozone (O3) is generated on-site by corona discharge (CD) generators or UV irradiation. CD generators pass oxygen (from PSA oxygen concentrator or liquid oxygen supply) or dry air through a high-voltage (5 to 20 kV AC) gap between dielectric-coated electrodes; ozone concentration achievable: 6 to 12 wt percent from air feed, 12 to 16 wt percent from oxygen feed. UV ozone generators use 185 nm lamps to photolyse O2 in passing air; limited to small-scale applications (below 100 g per hr) due to low efficiency (1 to 2 wt percent ozone, vs 12 to 16 for CD). Ozone yield per kWh: 70 to 120 g O3 per kWh for CD generators on oxygen feed; 20 to 50 g O3 per kWh on air. Key design parameters: dielectric material (glass or ceramic), electrode cooling (water or air), and dew point of feed gas (drier feed reduces dielectric degradation; target dew point below -60 degrees C for high-concentration production).
Ozone dosing in water treatment: drinking water typically 1 to 3 mg per L O3 (pre-ozone for colour/taste/odour removal, 0.5 to 1.5 mg per L) and mid-stage ozone (2 to 4 mg per L, ahead of BAC filters for ozone-biologically active carbon process). Wastewater ozone for micropollutant removal: 5 to 10 mg per L O3 for 80 percent reduction of pharmaceuticals, hormones, and PFAS precursors (EU WFD emerging substance treatment BAT). Ozone CT (concentration times time): for Giardia 3-log inactivation, CT = 0.5 mg per L-min at pH 7.5; for Cryptosporidium 3-log inactivation, CT = 5 mg per L-min (at 15 degrees C). Ozone contact is designed in baffled tanks (CT credit requires L/D ratio above 10 for each chamber to approach plug flow) or diffuser systems.
Ozone destruction equipment is mandatory: undissolved ozone off-gas from contactors must be destroyed before atmospheric release (workplace exposure limit: 0.2 mg per m3 TWA, NIOSH ceiling 0.1 ppm 8-hr TWA). Thermal/catalytic destruct units (heated catalytic converter at 300 to 350 degrees C, activated manganese dioxide catalyst) achieve 99.9 percent ozone destruction at off-gas concentrations of 1,000 to 30,000 mg per m3. Ozone monitoring: UV absorption analysers (254 nm, Beer-Lambert law, accuracy plus or minus 2 percent) for dissolved ozone in water; electrochemical sensors for ambient air monitoring in the ozone room (alarm threshold 0.1 ppm). Safety design: ozone-resistant materials required (316L stainless steel, PTFE, PVDF, ceramics; avoid natural rubber, PVC, copper alloys at high O3 concentration).
Frequently Asked Questions
What is ozone used for in water treatment?
Ozone in water treatment serves four main functions: (1) Disinfection - ozone is a powerful oxidant (E0 = 2.07 V vs 1.36 V for chlorine), achieving Giardia 3-log inactivation at CT 0.5 mg/L-min and virus 4-log inactivation at CT 0.5 to 2.0 mg/L-min (temperature-dependent); much faster than chlorine for Cryptosporidium; (2) Taste and odour control - ozone oxidises geosmin (earthy/musty algal metabolite, odour threshold 5 to 10 ng per L) and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) at doses of 1 to 3 mg per L, typically more effectively than chlorine; (3) Colour and NOM removal - oxidises coloured humic substances (reduction of UV254 absorbance by 40 to 60 percent at 2 to 4 mg per L O3); (4) Micropollutant removal - ozone plus H2O2 (AOP: advanced oxidation process) generates hydroxyl radicals (OH*, E0 = 2.80 V) that mineralise pesticides, pharmaceuticals, PFAS, and other recalcitrant compounds at 5 to 10 mg per L O3.
What are the risks of using ozone in water treatment?
Ozone presents two main risks: (1) Operational safety - ozone gas is highly toxic (IDLH 5 ppm; OSHA PEL 0.1 ppm 8-hr TWA); off-gas from contactors must be destroyed by catalytic destruct units before atmospheric release; ozone rooms require continuous air monitoring with audible alarms at 0.1 ppm and emergency ventilation (10 air changes per hour minimum); PPE requirement: full-face air-supplied respirator for maintenance inside ozone contact chambers. Ozone is also highly corrosive to standard materials; stainless steel (316L), PTFE, and PVDF must be used throughout the ozone contact zone. (2) By-product formation - ozone reacting with bromide naturally present in source water (1 to 500 micrograms per L Br-) forms bromate (BrO3-), a regulated human carcinogen; EU DWD and US EPA MCL: 10 micrograms per L bromate. Bromate formation control: lower ozone dose, lower pH (pH 6 to 7), add ammonia (5 to 10 micrograms per L NH4+ scavenges OH* and suppresses Br- oxidation pathway), or apply H2O2 (0.5 molar ratio H2O2:O3).
How much does an ozone generator cost?
Ozone generator costs scale with output capacity. For drinking water applications: small systems (up to 100 g O3 per hr): $20,000 to $100,000 including generator, PSA oxygen unit, and controls; mid-range (100 g to 1 kg O3 per hr): $100,000 to $400,000; large municipal (1 to 50 kg O3 per hr): $400,000 to $5M per unit (major suppliers: Xylem De Nora, Suez, Mitsubishi Electric, Wedeco). Operating cost: energy is dominant at $0.01 to $0.04 per g O3 produced (at $0.10 to $0.15 per kWh electricity; oxygen feed CD generator at 80 g O3 per kWh: $0.018 per g O3 at $0.15 per kWh). Liquid oxygen supply or PSA unit adds $0.005 to $0.015 per g O3. Full installed ozone treatment cost for drinking water: $0.05 to $0.25 per m3 at typical doses of 2 to 4 mg per L. Total cost of ozone versus UV disinfection: ozone is typically more expensive per CT equivalent, but ozone provides additional colour, taste, and micropollutant removal benefits that UV does not.
What is BAC filtration and how does it relate to ozone?
Biologically Active Carbon (BAC) filtration uses granular activated carbon (GAC) as a support medium for a biofilm of heterotrophic bacteria that aerobically degrade the biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) produced by ozonation. Ozone breaks large recalcitrant humic molecules into smaller, more biodegradable fragments (ozone increases BDOC from typically 0.5 to 1.0 mg per L to 2 to 5 mg per L BDOC in the ozonated water). The BAC filter (EBCT 10 to 20 minutes, media depth 1.0 to 1.5 m) then removes this ozone-generated BDOC, reducing DBP precursors, AOC (assimilable organic carbon, which causes bacterial regrowth in distribution), and residual organic micropollutants. The combination Ozone-BAC is the dominant advanced drinking water treatment train in Europe and increasingly in the US, replacing dual-media filtration plus chlorination for water sources with elevated TOC, algal metabolites, or micropollutant concerns. BAC filters require periodic backwashing (weekly to monthly) but do not require reactivation of the carbon for decades, unlike adsorption-only GAC.
A 60 MLD surface water treatment works drawing from a moorland reservoir experienced seasonal taste and odour events (geosmin at 5 to 15 ng per L) from cyanobacterial blooms each summer, generating consumer complaints. The existing treatment train (coagulation, sedimentation, rapid gravity filtration, chlorination) was ineffective against geosmin. DWI had flagged elevated THM concentrations from high-dose chlorination.
A pre-ozone stage (2 mg per L, 4-minute CT) followed by mid-ozone (3 mg per L, 8-minute CT) and GAC contactors (EBCT 12 minutes) was retrofitted between filtration and chlorination. PSA oxygen concentrators supplied feed gas to three CD ozone generators at 15 wt percent from oxygen. Catalytic destruct units were installed on all contactor off-gas streams. Bromate risk was managed by maintaining pH at 6.8 using CO2 dosing ahead of the ozone contact chamber.
Geosmin concentration in product water fell below the detection limit (less than 2 ng per L) throughout the following summer season. THM concentrations dropped 44 percent due to NOM oxidation before chlorination. Bromate remained below 5 ug per L throughout, well within the 10 ug per L parametric value. DWI compliance assessment confirmed satisfactory performance 12 months after commissioning.
Questions to Ask Shortlisted Providers
- 1
What is the bromide concentration in the source water and how is bromate formation risk managed?
Bromide above 50 ug per L creates significant bromate risk during ozonation; pH depression, ammonia addition, or H2O2 co-dosing may be needed to stay below the 10 ug per L bromate limit.
- 2
What ozone CT is required to achieve the target pathogen inactivation credit and how is CT measured?
CT credit is calculated from residual concentration times T10 contact time; the baffling factor of the contact chamber must be established by tracer test and documented for regulatory compliance.
- 3
How is the ozone off-gas destruct system designed and what is the NIOSH ambient monitoring protocol for the ozone room?
Off-gas from contactors must be destroyed to below the 0.1 ppm WEL before release; continuous ambient monitoring with audible alarm and emergency ventilation is a legal requirement under COSHH 2002.
- 4
What is the ozone system capacity factor and how does it handle peak demand flow variation?
CD generator output must match plant flow at maximum design rate; partial-load operation at below 40 percent of rated output reduces ozone concentration and CT credit.
- 5
Is a BAC polishing stage included and what is the EBCT and media specification?
Ozone without downstream BAC leaves elevated BDOC that drives regrowth in distribution; BAC is generally required to realise the full water quality benefit of ozonation.
What Drives Cost in This Category
CD ozone generators cost 150,000 to 800,000 GBP per unit depending on output; PSA oxygen concentrator adds 100,000 to 400,000 GBP; liquid oxygen supply avoids the PSA capital but raises OPEX by 0.01 to 0.02 GBP per g O3.
Concrete ozone contact tanks with baffled cells to achieve the required L/D ratio and tracer-tested T10/T factor represent 30 to 50 percent of total ozone installation capital cost for large plants.
Catalytic destruct units, ozone monitoring analyser, emergency ventilation, and confined space entry systems add 80,000 to 300,000 GBP to project cost and require annual servicing.
Ozone generation is the most energy-intensive step in the treatment train; at 80 g O3 per kWh and a 3 mg per L dose, energy cost is 0.037 kWh per m3 -- multiplied by 365 days and plant capacity, this is a significant ongoing OPEX item.
Key Regulations & Standards
Ozone contact chambers and associated equipment require DWI approval for use in drinking water treatment; DWI also oversees bromate compliance (10 ug per L parametric value) as a disinfection by-product.
Bromate (BrO3-) limit of 10 ug per L applies in England and Wales; DWI monitoring and enforcement requires a site-specific bromate management plan for all ozonation installations.
Ozone is classified as a hazardous substance under COSHH; EH40 WEL is 0.2 mg per m3 (0.1 ppm) 8-hour TWA; a COSHH assessment and monitoring programme is mandatory for all ozone plant rooms.
Ozone generators, PSA oxygen vessels, and high-pressure ozone dissolution systems are pressure vessels subject to PSSR 2000; a Written Scheme of Examination and periodic inspection by a competent person are required.
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